By Nada Salem Abisamra
http://www.nadasisland.com

Group for Discussions on Facebook: Nada's ESL Island.(Join us there! Post your questions)

Nada's Master's THESIS:
"The Role of Motivation, Gender, and Language Learning Strategies
in EFL Proficiency"  (Html / References)

Presentation: Procedures
 
1. Survey
2. KWL chart
3. Preliminary Questionnaire
4. Presentation Outline
5. Presentation
6. Recapitulation
7. KWL chart revisited
8. Presentation Evaluation




Presentation: Content
 

Introduction: Krashen's Affective Filter hypothesis
& Affect in Language Learning.
1. Why do people learn a second/foreign language?
2. Definitions of L2
3. Good L2 Learners
4. Definitions of Motivation
5. Sources of Motivation
6. Theories of Motivation
• Behavioral
• Cognitive
• Cognitive Developmental
• Achievement
• Psychoanalytic
• Humanistic
• Social Cognition
• Transpersonal / Spiritual
7. Models of Motivation
• Gardner & Lambert (1959, 1972): Socio-Educational Model
• Vroom (1964): Expectancy Value Theories
• Schumann (1978, 1986): Acculturation Model
• Gardner (1985)
• Deci & Ryan (1985): Extrinsic or Intrinsic Motivation
• Dornyei (1990)
• Crookes & Schmidt (1991)
• Oxford and Shearin (1994)
• Dornyei (1994)
• Wen (1997): Expectancy-value theories
• Dornyei (1998)
8. Factors that Affect Motivation
9. Instruments for Motivation Assessment
• The "Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB)- Gardner, 1985
• Motivational intensity questionnaire (Gardner, 1985)
• The Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) (Keller, 1987).
• Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)  (Oxford, 1989)
• Motivational Delivery Checklist (Keller and Keller, 1989)
• Motivational element questionnaire (Schmidt et al., 1996)
• Motivation Scale (Wen, 1997)
• The Website Motivational Analysis Checklist (WebMAC) (Small, 1997)
10. Implications & Strategies for:
• Teachers + Homework
• Students
• Parents (soon)
• Schools (soon)
Conclusion & Recapitulation
References
Related Links

"The Creator gathered all of creation and said,
'I want to hide something from the humans until they are Ready for it.
It is the Realization that They Create their Own Reality.'
The eagle said, 'Give it to me, I will take it to the moon.'
The Creator said, 'No. One day they will go there and find it.'
The salmon said, 'I will hide it on the bottom of the ocean.'
'No. They will go there too.'
The buffalo said, 'I will bury it on the Great Plains.'
Then Grand-mother Mole, who lives in the breast of Mother Earth,
and who has no physical eyes but sees with spiritual eyes,
said, 'Put it Inside them.'
And the creator said, 'It is done.' "
Sioux Legend

What do we infer from this "Legend?"

1. Can we motivate our students if they are not "Ready" for motivation?
2. It is not only the teacher's / parents' job to motivate students, they need to assume responsibility for their own learning. => intrinsic motivation.
3. We can search everywhere for the most valuable thing for us, but if we only look with physical eyes, we won't find it.
4. If we help our students to look deep inside of them, they will find what they need: intrinsic motivation.
5. We have been everywhere but have ignored our inner selves.
6. We = people with both our Cognitive & Affective domains.
7. The Cognitive domain has been dealt with extensively; the Affective one, on the other hand, has been ignored for a long time; it needs to be considered: it is the second component in our personality and is extremely important.

 
As Rogers said while talking about mainstream educational institutions,
"They have focused so intently on the cognitive and have limited themselves so completely to 'educating from the neck up' , that this narrowness is resulting in serious social consequences." (1975:40-41)
.
8. We are the ones that create our own reality; what we are, what we want to be. We need to Realize that, to understand it, to acknowledge it. => set goals!

Motivation is like food for the brain. --Peter Davies
http://www.quotelady.com/subjects/motivation.html

Life takes on meaning when you become motivated, set goals and
charge after them in an unstoppable manner. -- Les Brown --
http://www.motivation123.com/quotations.html

Everybody needs motivation. Everybody needs to have a reason for action.
It is a sad fact that most people in this world underachieve because
they don't believe they are capable of fulfilling their dreams.
We, teachers, need to be committed to offering students the opportunity
to believe in themselves and achieve great things.

Krashen's Affective Filter hypothesis
& Affect in Language Learning

Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition
consists of five main hypotheses:

 

1- Natural order hypothesis:	'We acquire the rules of language in a predictable order'
2- Acquisition/ Learning Hypothesis:	'Adults have two distinctive ways of developing competences in second languages .. acquisition, that is by using language for real communication (natural environment) ... learning .. "knowing about" language'
3- Monitor Hypothesis:	'Conscious learning ... can only be used as a Monitor or an editor' (those who use the monitor a lot are slow learners => too conscious of what they say)
4- Input Hypothesis:	'Humans acquire language in only one way - by understanding messages or by receiving "comprehensible input"' (comprehensible input = data we hear around us; if we are relaxed, it goes directly to our heads)
5- Affective Filter Hypothesis:	'A mental block, caused by affective factors ... that prevents input from reaching the language acquisition device'

In this presentation, we are only interested in the fifth hypothesis -- The Affective Filter Hypothesis-- which stipulates that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. (Krashen, 1985)

What we conclude then is that Affect plays a very important role in second language acquisition. It needs to be taken into consideration by L2 teachers so they make sure that the students' affective filter is low at all times in order for learning to take place.
Since this presentation is only related to Motivation, it will not cover the two other variables: self-confidence and anxiety.

Before we start by defining motivation, mentioning its sources and different theories/models and their implications, we believe it is worth asking one question that seems to guide all theorists' and researchers' work: "Why do people learn a second or foreign language? In other words, what is their Goal?

1- Why Do People Learn a
Second/Foreign Language?

This seems to be the key question in all kinds of research!
And of course, the reasons vary from a person to another.

• Fulfill school/university requirements
• Function and compete effectively in the global economy of today and the future
• Increase job opportunities and salary potential
• Develop intercultural sensitivity, increasing global understanding
• Improve English vocabulary and language proficiency in order to communicate with members of that language community.
• Improve critical and creative thinking skills
• Improve one's education
• Enhance travel and study abroad opportunities
• Enjoy great literary and musical masterpieces and films in their original language
• Improve likelihood of acceptance into university and graduate schools
• Increase understanding of people in own country
• Gain social power (prestige)
• Have a secret code
• Please one's parents
• Any other reason(s)?

2- Definitions of L2

It is crucial here to mention the difference between a Second and a Foreign language, which are both referred to as L2.
 
• People who are living in an English-speaking community/country are learning English as their SECOND language. "The learner of the second language is surrounded by stimulation, both visual and auditory, in the target language and thus has many motivational and instructional advantages." (Oxford & Shearin, 1994)
.
• As for those who are not living in an English-speaking community/country, they are learning English as a FOREIGN language. "Foreign language learners are surrounded by their own native language and have to go out of their way to find stimulation and input in the target language. These students typically receive input in the new language only in the classroom and by artificial means, no matter how talented the teacher is." (Oxford & Shearin, 1994)

3- Good L2 Learners

Research has shown that the use of specific learning strategies & techniques while studying a second or foreign language leads to success. "The conscious, tailored use of such strategies is related to language achievement and proficiency. (Oxford, 1994)

Some of those strategies:

Rubin (1975) suggested that good L2 learners

are willing and accurate guessers;

have a strong drive to communicate;

are often uninhibited, and if they are, they combat inhibition by using positive self-talk, by extensive use of practicing in private, and by putting themselves in situations where they have to participate communicatively.

are willing to make mistakes;

focus on form by looking for patterns and analyzing;

take advantage of all practice opportunities;

monitor their speech as well as that of others;

and pay attention to meaning.

One of the factors that influence the choice of strategies used among students learning a second/foreign language is Motivation. More motivated students tend to use more strategies than less motivated students, hence, they tend to be more successful. (Oxford, 1990a)

4- Definitions of Motivation

However simple and easy the word "motivation" might appear, it is in fact very difficult to define. It seems to have been impossible for theorists to reach consensus on a single definition.

Here are a few that I have found in the literature:

According to the Webster's, to motivate means to provide with a motive, a need or desire that causes a person to act.

According to Gardner (1985), motivation is concerned with the question, "Why does an organism behave as it does?
Motivation involves 4 aspects:

1. A Goal
2. An Effort
3. A Desire to attain the goal
4. Favorable Attitude toward the activity in question.

Motivation is also defined as the impetus to create and sustain intentions and goal-seeking acts (Ames & Ames, 1989). It is important because it determines the extent of the learner's active involvement and attitude toward learning. (Ngeow, Karen Yeok-Hwa, 1998)

Motivation is a desire to achieve a goal, combined with the energy to work towards that goal.
Many researchers consider motivation as one of the main elements that determine success in developing a second or foreign language; it determines the extent of active, personal involvement in L2 learning. (Oxford & Shearin, 1994)

Sometimes a distinction is made between positive and negative motivation.
Positive motivation is a response which includes enjoyment and optimism about the tasks that you are involved in.
Negative motivation involves undertaking tasks for fear that there should be undesirable outcomes, eg. failing a subject, if tasks are not completed.
http://www.unisanet.unisa.edu.au/motivation/

What can we infer from all those definitions? What are the keywords that "Motivation" triggers in our minds?

MOTIVATION

.

*Goal *Effort *Desire

*Energy *Active involvement *Persistence

Patience, persistence and perspiration make an unbeatable combination for success.
--Napolean Hill --

5- Sources of Motivation

"Without knowing where the roots of motivation lie, how can teachers water those roots?"
(Oxford & Shearin, 1994- p.15)

Educational psychologists point to three major sources of motivation in learning (Fisher, 1990):

1. The learner’s natural interest:  intrinsic satisfaction
2. The teacher/institution/employment: extrinsic reward
3. Success in the task: combining satisfaction and reward

"While teachers and school systems have drawn on both of the first two sources of motivation,
  the third source is perhaps under-exploited in language teaching.  This is the simple fact of
  success, and the effect that this has on our view of what we do.  As human beings, we generally
  like what we do well, and are therefore more likely to do it again, and put in more effort . . .
In the classroom, this can mean that students who develop an image of
 themselves as ‘no good at English’ will simply avoid situations which tell them what they already
 know – that they aren’t any good at English.   Feelings of failure, particularly early on in a
 student’s school career, can therefore lead to a downward spiral of a self- perception of low
 ability – low motivation – low effort – low achievement – low motivation – low achievement, and
 so on."
Littlejohn, Andrew- November 2001
 ENGLISH TEACHING professional, Issue 19, March 2001

In general, explanations regarding the source(s) of motivation can be categorized as either extrinsic (outside the person) or intrinsic (internal to the person). Intrinsic sources and corresponding theories can be further subcategorized as either body/physical, mind/mental (i.e., cognitive, affective, conative) or transpersonal/spiritual.

Note: Conation = inclination to act purposefully; impulse. (Webster's)
"It is an intrinsic 'unrest' of the organism, almost the opposite of homeostasis.
A conscious tendency to act... a conscious striving." (English & English, 1958)

Note: Vicarious learning = the acquisition of knowledge or ability
  through indirect experience and observation, rather than direct experience or practice.
(Harcourt Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology)

The following chart provides a brief overview of the different sources of motivation that have been studied. While INITIATION of action can be traced to each of these domains, it appears likely that PERSISTENCE  may be more related to emotions and/or the affective area (optimism vs. pessimism; self- esteem; etc.) or to conation and goal-orientation.

6- Theories of Motivation

A- Behavioral Theories

• Drive:.(Hull) urgent, basic, or instinctual need: a motivating physiological condition of an organism.

• Learned motives
1. Classical conditioning: (Pavlov) it states that biological responses to associated stimuli energize and direct behavior.
2. Instrumental/operant learning: (Skinner) it states that the primary factor is consequences: reinforcers are incentives to increase behavior and punishers are disincentives that result in a decrease in behavior.

(Stimulus => response => reward)

The desire of reward is one of the strongest incentives of human conduct; ... the best security for the fidelity of mankind is to make their interest coincide with their duty. --Alexander Hamilton (The Federalist Papers)
 

3. Observational/social learning: (Bandura) it suggests that modeling (imitating others) and vicarious learning (watching others have consequences applied to their behavior) are important motivators of behavior.
.
• Incentive motivation:  it refers to goal-directed behavior (behavior that is "pulled" more than "pushed"). Seeking of rewards; avoidance of punishers.

Unlike drives, which were thought to be innate, incentives are usually considered to be learned.

Behaviorists explain motivation in terms of external stimuli and reinforcement. The physical environment and actions of the teacher are of prime importance.

B- Cognitive Theories

• Expectancy-value/VIE theory: (Vroom, 1964) it proposes the following equation:
Motivation =
Perceived Probability of Success (Expectancy)
Connection of Success and Reward-- material benefit (Instrumentality)
Value of Obtaining Goal (Valence, Value)
(VIE = Valence, Instrumentality, Expectancy)
.
Since this formula states that the three factors of Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence or Value are to be multiplied by each other, a low value in one will result in a low value of motivation. Therefore, all three must be present in order for motivation to occur. That is, if an individual doesn't believe he or she can be successful at a task OR the individual does not see a connection between his or her activity and success OR the individual does not value the results of success, then the probability is lowered that the individual will engage in the required learning activity. From the perspective of this theory, all three variables must be high in order for motivation and the resulting behavior to be high.
=> An individual will act in a certain way based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

• Attribution theory: (Heider, 1958; Weiner, 1974). This theory proposes that every individual tries to explain success or failure of self and others by offering certain "attributions." These attributions are either internal or external and are either under control or not under control. The following chart shows the four attributions that result from a combination of internal or external locus of control and whether or not control is possible.
 


	Internal	External
No Control	Ability	Luck
Control	Effort	Task Difficulty

In a teaching/learning environment, it is important to assist the learner to develop a self-attribution explanation of effort (internal, control). If the person has an attribution of ability (internal, no control) as soon as the individual experiences some difficulties in the learning process, he or she will decrease appropriate learning behavior. If the person has an external attribution, then nothing the person can do will help that individual in a learning situation (i.e., responsibility for demonstrating what has been learned is completely outside the person). In this case, there is nothing to be done by the individual when learning problems occur.
.

• Cognitive dissonance theory: it was developed by Leon Festinger (1957) and states that when there is a discrepancy between two beliefs, two actions, or between a belief and an action, we will act to resolve conflict and discrepancies. The implication is that if we can create the appropriate amount of disequilibrium, this will in turn lead to the individual changing his or her behavior which in turn will lead to a change in thought patterns which in turn leads to more change in behavior.

According to the Webster's, cognitive dissonance is a psychological conflict resulting from incongruous beliefs and attitudes held simultaneously.

Weiner (1990) points out that behavioral theories tend to focus on extrinsic motivation (i.e., rewards) while cognitive theories deal with intrinsic motivation (i.e., goals).

Cognitivists explain motivation in terms of a person's active search for meaning and satisfaction in life. Thus, motivation is internal.

C- Cognitive Developmental Theories

• Stages of Cognitive Development (Piaget, 1972, 1990)

According to Piaget, children are motivated to develop their cognitive or mental abilities in a predictable set of stages:
1. Sensorimotor stage (Infancy, 0 to 2 years). In this period (which has 6 stages), intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because its based on physical interactions / experiences. Children acquire object permanence at about 7 months of age (memory). Physical development (mobility) allows the child to begin developing new intellectual abilities. Some symbollic (language) abilities are developed at the end of this stage.
2. Pre-operational stage (Toddler and Early Childhood, 2-7 years). In this period (which has two substages), intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use matures, and memory and imagination are developed, but thinking is done in a nonlogical, nonreversable manner. Egocentric thinking predominates
3. Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early adolescence, 7-12 years). In this stage (characterized by 7 types of conservation: number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, volume), intelligence is demonstarted through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible). Egocentric thought diminishes.
4. Formal operational stage (Adolescence and adulthood, 12 years –adult). In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Early in the period there is a return to egocentric thought. Only 35% of high school graduates in industrialized countries obtain formal operations; many people do not think formally during adulthood.

<=> According to this model, fulfillment of the previous stage is necessary for advancement to the next stage.
In order for the child to be motivated, parents and teachers need to challenge his/her abilities, but NOT present material or information that is too far beyond the child's level. It is also recommended that teachers use a wide variety of concrete experiences to motivate the child (e.g., use of manipulatives, working in groups to get experience seeing from another's perspective, field trips, etc).
 
• Zone of proximal development (Lev Vygotsky, 1978)

The Zone of Proximal Development is the distance between the learner's actual developmental level and the level of potential development; it is the gap between what we are trying to teach and the current state of development in that area. If the gap is too large, instruction won’t be effective; too small and the learner won’t be extended, therefore teachers must have background knowledge of those they teach.
=> Scaffolded instruction involves an instructor or advanced peer working to support the development of the learner. The instructor should guide the learner in such a way that the gap is bridged between the learner’s current skill levels and the desired skill level. As learners become more proficient, able to complete tasks on their own that they could not initially do without assistance, the guidance can be withdrawn.
Students' needs, goals and interests must be the starting point if motivation is to occur.
For motivation and progress to exist, instructional input to students must be Challenging & Relevant. (Oxford & Shearin, 1994)

D- Achievement Motivation Theories

• Achievement motivation theories: (Atkinson & Raynor, 1974)

1. Need for achievement: individuals with a high need for achievement are interested in excellence for its own sake (rather for extrinsic rewards), tend to initiate achievement activities, work with heightened intensity on these tasks, and persist in the face of failure.
2. Fear of failure: The main drive to do well comes from avoiding a negative outcome rather than approaching a positive one.
3. Fear of success: "Nerd" vs. "cool" => Fear of losing social support (affiliation).

• Goal-theory: (Locke & Latham, 1994) it has differentiated three separate types of goals:

1. Mastery goals (also called learning goals) which focus on gaining competence or mastering a new set of knowledge or skills;
2. Performance/normative goals (also called ego-involvement goals) which focus on achieving normative-based standards, doing better than others, or doing well without a lot of effort;
3. Social goals which focus on relationships among people (see Ames, 1992; Dweck, 1986; Urdan & Maehr, 1995).

=> interpersonal skills- cooperative learning.

In the context of school learning, which involves operating in a relatively structured environment, students with mastery goals outperform students with either performance or social goals. However, in life success, it seems critical that individuals have all three types of goals in order to be very successful.

One aspect of this theory is that individuals are motivated to either avoid failure (more often associated with performance goals) or achieve success (more often associated with mastery goals). In the former situation, the individual is more likely to select easy or difficult tasks, thereby either achieving success or having a good excuse for why failure occurred. In the latter situation, the individual is more likely to select moderately difficult tasks which will provide an interesting challenge, but still keep the high expectations for success.

E- Psychoanalytic Theories

The psychoanalytic theories of motivation propose a variety of fundamental influences:
 
• Freud (1990) suggested that all action or behavior is a result of internal, biological instincts that are classified into two categories: life (sexual) and death (aggression).

.
• Erikson (1993) and Sullivan (1968) proposed that interpersonal and social relationships are fundamental. (=> cooperative learning)

• Adler (1989) proposed power (money => as a motivator. ex: lawyers)
• Jung (1953, 1997) proposed temperament and search for soul or personal meaningfulness.

F- Humanistic Theories
Humanistic "theories" of learning tend to be highly value-driven and hence more like prescriptions rather than descriptions. They emphasise the "natural desire" of everyone to learn. They maintain that learners need to be empowered and to have control over the learning process. So the teacher relinquishes a great deal of authority and becomes a facilitator.
.
• Hierarchy of Human Needs: (Abraham Maslow, 1954). It is based on two groupings: deficiency needs and growth needs. Within the deficiency needs, each lower need must be met before moving to the next higher level.
The first four levels (Deficiency Needs) are:

1) Physiological: hunger, thirst, bodily comforts, etc.;
2) Safety/security: out of danger;
3) Belonginess and Love: affiliate with others, be accepted; and
4) Esteem: to achieve, be competent, gain approval and recognition.



According to Maslow, an individual is ready to act upon the growth needs if and only if the deficiency needs are met.

The remaining four levels (Growth Needs) are:

5) Cognitive: to know, to understand, and explore;
6) Aesthetic: symmetry, order, and beauty;
7) Self-actualization: to find self-fulfillment and realize one's potential;

 Self-actualized people are characterized by:

• Being problem-focused;
• Appreciating life;
• Showing concern about personal growth;
• Showing ability to have peak experiences.

8) Transcendence: to help others find self-fulfillment and realize their potential.

The essence of the hierarchy is the notion of “pre-potency”, which means that you are not going to be motivated by any higher-level needs until your lower-level ones have been satisfied.
.

• Hierarchy of Motivational Needs.(Alderfer, 1972)
 


Level of Need	Definition	Properties
Growth	Impels a person to make creative or productive effects on himself and his environment	Satisfied through using capabilities in engaging problems; creates a greater sense of wholeness and fullness as a human being
Relatedness	Involves relationships with significant others	Satisfied by mutually sharing thoughts and feelings; acceptance, confirmation, understanding, and influence are elements
Existence	Includes all of the various forms of material and psychological desires	When divided among people one person's gain is another's loss if resources are limited

Maslow recognized that not all personalities followed his proposed hierarchy. While a variety of personality dimensions might be considered as related to motivational needs, one of the most often cited is that of introversion and extroversion. Reorganizing Maslow's hierarchy based on the work of Alderfer and considering the introversion/extroversion dimension of personality results in three levels, each with an introverted and extroverted component. This organization suggests there may be two aspects of each level that differentiate how people relate to each set of needs. Different personalities might relate more to one dimension than the other. For example, an introvert at the level of Other/Relatedness might be more concerned with his or her own perceptions of being included in a group, whereas an extrovert at that same level would pay more attention to how others value that membership.

A Reorganization of Maslow's and Alderfer's Hierarchies




Level	Introversion	Extroversion
Growth	Self-Actualization (development of competencies [knowledge, attitudes, and skills] and character)	Transcendence (assisting in the development of others' competencies and character; relationships to the unknown, unknowable)
Other  (Relatedness)	Personal identification with group, significant others (Belongingness)	Value of person by group (Esteem)
Self  (Existence)	Physiological, biological (including basic emotional needs)	Connectedness,  security

.
• Self-Determination Theory:.(Deci & Ryan, 1985) it is based on the relationship between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and the basic human need for autonomy. It proposes that a person must be able to initiate and regulate, through personal choice, the effort expended to complete a task in order for the task to be intrinsically rewarding.
• Intrinsic motivation: the performance of a task for its own sake. It values rewards gained through the process of task completion, regardless of any external rewards.
• Extrinsic motivation: the pursuit of some reward external to the completion of the task, such as good grades. It is believed to undermine intrinsic motivation; individuals will often lose their intrinsic interest in a task if the task is seen as a means to an end.

Deci identifies autonomy, competence, and relatedness as the three criteria necessary for the self-determination theory of motivation.

Fill the Heart, not just the Money Bag.

Humanists stress the need for personal growth. They place a great deal of emphasis on the total person, along with the related news of personal freedom, choice and self determination.
.

G- Social Cognition

• Self-efficacy: (Bandura, 1986, 1997) it highlights the belief that a particular action is possible and that the individual can accomplish it. =>judging one's own ability and competence.
• Self-regulation: (Bandura, 1986, 1997) it highlights the establishment of goals, the development of a plan to attain those goals, the commitment to implement that plan, the actual implementation of the plan, and subsequent actions of reflection and modification or redirection.


H- Transpersonal / Spiritual Theories

Most of the transpersonal or spiritual theories deal with the meaningfulness of our lives or ultimate meanings.

---

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Theories of Motivation
Summary

7- Models of Motivation

A- Gardner & Lambert (1959, 1972): Socio-Educational Model
After conducting a study that lasted more than ten years, they concluded that the learner's attitude toward the target language and the culture of the target-language-speaking community play a crucial role in language learning motivation. They introduced the notions of instrumental and integrative motivation.

In the context of language learning, instrumental motivation refers to the learner's desire to learn a language for utilitarian purposes (such as school/university requirement, employment or travel), whereas integrative motivation refers to the desire to learn a language to integrate successfully into the target language community.
 

McDonough (1981)noted that there are two types of integrative motivation: “Assimilative motivation”, strong motivation to “belong” to the target group (give up one's own culture to assimilate into the target culture), and “Affiliative motivation”, weak motivation and a desire for wider social contact with target language speakers.

Researchers challenged the social psychological approach claiming that it does not include the cognitive aspects of learning motivation (Oxford & Shearin, 1994; Dornyei, 1994), it is not practical and does not benefit L2 learning since it is too broad to help L2 educators generate practical guidelines (Dornyei, 1990).

B- Vroom (1964): Expectancy Value Theories: Learners' motivation to acquire a second language is determined by:
• Effort
• Valence (perception of degree of attractiveness of goals/ its value)
• Expectancy (perception of the probability of attaining the goals)
• Ability (appraisal of their ability to achieve the goals).
• Instrumentality (connection of success and reward)


Questions the learner asks him/herself:

• Should I expend the energy or not? (effort)
• Does the outcome have a value? (valence)
• Are my actions likely to lead to success? (expectancy)
• Can I reach success? (ability)
• Will the outcome yield other positive results? (instrumentality)


C- Schumann (1978, 1986): Acculturation Model- Schumann examined the effects of personal variables such as relative status, attitude, integration, amount of time in the culture, size of the learning group, and cohesiveness of the group on adult language learning.

Schumann suggested three strategies taken by adult learners:

• Assimilation: total adoption of the target culture
• Rejection of target culture: preservation of the home culture (culture shock)
• Acculturation: learning to function in the new culture while maintaining one's own identity (adaptability).
He suggests that the degree of acculturation determines the level of second language aquisition. When an individual chooses to acculturate and experiences success, the motivation to learn the L2 increases. (Oxford & Shearin, 1994)
In the EFL­unlike the ESL classroom, the situation is slightly different, in that the need for assimilation or acculturation is practically non-existent, especially at beginning levels and in languages such as French or German.
.

D- Gardner (1985):.Gardner explored four other motivational orientations:
• (a) reason for learning,
• (b) desire to attain the learning goal,
• (c) positive attitude toward the learning situation, and
• (d) effortful behavior.


Gardner (1985) describes core second language learning motivation as a construct composed of three characteristics:

• the attitudes towards learning a language (affect),
• the desire to learn the language (want) and
• motivational intensity (effort).


According to Gardner, a highly motivated individual will

• enjoy learning the language, and
• want to learn the language,
• strive to learn the language.


"An integratively oriented learner would likely have a stronger desire to learn the language, have more positive attitudes towards the learning situation, and be more likely to expend more effort in learning the language (Gardner, 1985).

The Gardnerian theory of SLA motivation is based on the definition of motivation as "the extent to which the individual works or strives to learn the language because of a desire to do so and the satisfaction experienced in this activity" (Gardner, 1985).

E- Deci & Ryan (1985): Self-Determination (autonomy) Theory: it is based on the relationship between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and the basic human need for autonomy. It proposes that a person must be able to initiate and regulate, through personal choice, the effort expended to complete a task in order for the task to be intrinsically rewarding.
• Intrinsic motivation: the performance of a task for its own sake. It values rewards gained through the process of task completion, regardless of any external rewards.
• Extrinsic motivation: the pursuit of some reward external to the completion of the task, such as good grades. It is believed to undermine intrinsic motivation; individuals will often lose their intrinsic interest in a task if the task is seen as a means to an end.
<=> Extrinsic or Intrinsic Motivation, depending on whether the stimulus for the behavior originated outside or inside the individual.

.

F- Dornyei (1990): He postulated a motivational construct consisting of:
• an Instrumental Motivational Subsystem
• an Integrative Motivational Subsystem
• Need for Achievement
• Attribution about past failures.
"Instrumental motivation might be more important than integrative motivation for foreign language learners."

.

G- Crookes & Schmidt (1991): They identified four areas of SL motivation:
• the micro level,
• the classroom level,
• the syllabus level, and
• a level involving factors from outside the classroom.


The micro level involves the cognitive processing of L2 input.
At the micro level learner motivation is evidenced by the amount of attention given to the input.
The classroom level includes the techniques and activities employed in the classroom.
The syllabus level refers to the choice of content presented and can influence motivation by the level of curiosity and interest stimulated in the students.
Finally, factors from outside the classroom involve informal interaction in the L2 and long term factors.

Crookes & Schmidt (1991) also suggested that motivation to learn a language has both internal and external features:

H- Oxford and Shearin (1994): They analyzed a total of 12 motivational theories or models, including those from socio-psychology, cognitive development, and socio-cultural psychology, and identified six factors that impact motivation in language learning:
 
* attitudes (i.e., sentiments toward the learning community and the target language)

* beliefs about self (i.e., expectancies about one's attitudes to succeed, self-efficacy, and anxiety)

* goals (perceived clarity and relevance of learning goals as reasons for learning)

* involvement (i.e., extent to which the learner actively and consciously participates in the language learning process)

* environmental support (i.e., extent of teacher and peer support, and the integration of cultural and outside-of-class support into learning experience)

* personal attributes (i.e., aptitude, age, sex, and previous language learning experience).

.

I- Dornyei (1994):.His taxonomy of motivation is comprised of three levels:
• the Language Level,
• the Learner Level, and
• the Learning Situation Level.
.
1. The Language level is the most general level which focuses on "orientations and motives related to various aspects of the L2". The motives and orientations at this level determine the language studied and the most basic learning goals.
• integrative motivational subsystem
• instrumental motivational subsystem
.
2. The Learner level involves the influence of individual traits of language learners. Motivation is influenced at the Learner Level by the learner's
• need for achievement
• self-confidence (anxiety, perceived L2 competence, attributions, self-efficacy).
The Learner Level is concerned with internal, affective characteristics of the learner related to expectancy.
.
3. Motivation at the Learning Situation Level is influenced by a number of intrinsic and extrinsic motives that are
• course specific (interest, relevance, expectancy, satisfaction),
• teacher specific (affiliative motive --please teacher, authority type --controlling vs. autonomy supporting, modelling, task presentation, feedback),
• group specific (goal-orientedness, reward system, group cohesiveness, classroom goal structure -- cooperative, competitive, individualistic.
.

J- Wen (1997): He incorporated expectancy-value theories and identified four motivational factors:
• motivation of instrumentality
• intrinsic motivation
• expected learning strategies and efforts
• passivity towards requirements.

.

K- Dornyei (1998):.He suggests seven main motivational dimensions:

1. the affective/integrative dimension:
 
• integrative motives;
• affective motives;
• language attitudes;
• intrinsic motives/attitudes towards L2
• learning/enjoyment/interest;


2. the instrumental/pragmatic dimension;

3. the macro-context-related dimension (multi-cultural/ intergroup / ethnolinguistic relations);

4. the self-concept-related dimension (generalised/ trait-like personality factors);
 

• self-concept;
• confidence/self-efficacy;
• anxiety/inhibitions;
• success/failure-related (attributional) factor;
• expectancy;
• need for achievement;


5. the goal-related dimension;

6. the educational context-related dimension (learning/ classroom/ school environment);

7. the significant others-related dimension (parents, family, friends).

Dornyei
(Click on the picture to go to his web site)

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Models of Motivation
Summary

8- Factors that Affect Motivation
.

"Motivation to learn is a competence acquired through general experience but stimulated most directly through modeling, communication of expectations, and direct instruction or socialization by significant others (especially parents and teachers)." (Brophy, 1987)

"To a very large degree, students expect to learn if their teachers expect them to learn."
(Stipek, 1988)

http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed444381.html
http://www.caslt.org/research/affect.htm
http://library.thinkquest.org/T0210820/Linda.html
http://members.fortunecity.com/nadabs/prophecy.html
http://exchanges.state.gov/forum/vols/vol35/no1/p8.htm (Motivating Learners At South Korean Universities) by Janet S. Niederhauser)

9- Instruments for Motivation Assessment:

• The "Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB)- Gardner, 1985

• Motivational intensity questionnaire (Gardner, 1985)

To measure intensity of motivation.

• The Instructional Materials Motivation Survey (IMMS) (Keller, 1987). It requires students to rate 36 ARCS-related statements in relation to the instructional materials they have just used.

• Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)  (Oxford, 1989)

To measure language learning strategies.

• Motivational Delivery Checklist (Keller and Keller, 1989)

A 47-item ARCS-based instrument for evaluating the motivational characteristics of an instructor's classroom delivery.
 
• Motivational element questionnaire (Schmidt et al., 1996)

To measure intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

• Motivation Scale (Wen, 1997)

• The Website Motivational Analysis Checklist (WebMAC) (Small, 1997)

It is an instrument used for designing and assessing the motivational quality of World Wide Web sites.

10- Implications & Strategies for L2 Learners' Motivation:

Check Matching Exercise

Teachers:

The greatest motivational act one person can do for another is to listen.--Roy E. Moody

Dornyei (1994) suggests

1. developing students' self-efficacy,
2. decreasing their anxiety,
3. promoting motivation-enhancing attributions,
4. encouraging students to set attainable sub-goals, and
5. increasing the attractiveness of course content.

 Dornyei (1998:131) suggests
"Ten Commandments for Motivating Language Learners”

1. Set a personal example with your own behavior.
2. Create a pleasant, relaxed atmosphere in the classroom.
3. Present the task properly.
4. Develop a good relationship with the learners.
5. Increase the learner's linguistic self-confidence.
6. Make the language classes interesting.
7. Promote learner autonomy.
8. Personalize the learning process.
9. Increase the learners' goal-orientedness.
10. Familiarize learners with the target language culture.

Oxford & Shearin (1996:139) also offer Practical Suggestions for Teachers:

1. Teachers can identify why students are studying the new language.

• Teachers can find out actual motivations (motivation survey).
• Information on motivation can be passed on to the next class in a portfolio.
• Teachers can determine which parts of L2 learning are especially valuable for the students.

2. Teachers can help shape students' beliefs about success and failure in L2 learning.
 

• Students can learn to have realistic but challenging goals.
• Teachers can learn to accept diversity in the way students establish and meet their goals, based on differences in learning styles.

3. Teachers can help students improve motivation by showing that L2 learning can be an exciting mental challenge, a career enhancer, a vehicle to cultural awareness and friendship and a key to world peace.

4. Teachers can make the L2 classroom a welcoming, positive place where psychological needs are met and where language anxiety is kept to a minimum.

5. Teachers can urge students to develop their own intrinsic rewards through positive self-talk, guided self-evaluation, and mastery of specific goals, rather than comparison with other students. Teachers can thus promote a sense of greater self-efficacy, increasing motivation to continue learning the L2.

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Keller (1983).He presents an instructional design model for motivation that is based upon a number of other theories. His model suggests a design strategy that encompasses four components of motivation:

1. stimulating interest in the topic/ Attention,
2. creating Relevance to students' lives,
3. developing an expectancy of success and feelings of being in control / Confidence,
4. producing Satisfaction in the outcome through intrinsic/extrinsic rewards.

Keller (1987).The ARCS Model of Motivational Design is a well-known and widely applied model of instructional design. Simple, yet powerful, the ARCS Model is rooted in a number of motivational theories and concepts, (see Keller, 1983) most notably expectancy-value theory (e.g. Vroom, 1964; Porter and Lawler, 1968).

In expectancy-value theory, "effort" is identified as the major measurable motivational outcome. For "effort" to occur, two necessary prerequisites are specified _ (1) the person must value the task and (2) the person must believe he or she can succeed at the task. Therefore, in an instructional situation, the learning task needs to be presented in a way that is engaging and meaningful to the student, and in a way that promotes positive expectations for the successful achievement of learning objectives.

The ARCS Model identifies four essential strategy components for motivating instruction:
 

1. [A]ttention strategies for stimulating and sustaining curiosity and interest;
2. [R]elevance strategies that link to learners' needs, interests, and motives;
3. [C]onfidence strategies that help students develop a positive expectation for successful achievement; and
4. [S]atisfaction strategies that provide extrinsic and intrinsic reinforcement for effort (Keller, 1983).


Keller (1987) breaks each of the four ARCS components down into three strategy sub-components. The strategy sub-components and instructionally relevant examples are shown below.


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Attention

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1. Perceptual Stimulation: provide novelty, surprise, incongruity or uncertainty. Ex. The teacher places a sealed box covered with question marks on a table in front of the class.
2. Inquiry Stimulation: stimulate curiosity by posing questions or problems to solve. Ex. The teacher presents a scenario of a problem situation and asks the class to brainstorm possible solutions based on what they have learned in the lesson.
3. Variability: incorporate a range of methods and media to meet students' varying needs. Ex. After displaying and reviewing each step in the process on the overhead projector, the teacher divides the class into teams and assigns each team a set of practice problems.

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Relevance

---

1. Goal Orientation: present the objectives and useful purpose of the instruction and specific methods for successful achievement. Ex. The teacher explains the objectives of the lesson.
2. Motive Matching: match objectives to student needs and motives. Ex. The teacher allows the students to present their projects in writing or orally to accommodate different learning needs and styles.
3. Familiarity: present content in ways that are understandable and that are related to the learners' experience and values. Ex. The teacher asks the students to provide examples from their own experiences for the concept presented in class.

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Confidence

---

1. Learning Requirements: inform students about learning and performance requirements and assessment criteria. Ex. The teacher provides students with a list of assessment criteria for their research projects and circulates examples of exemplary projects from past years.
2. Success Opportunities: provide challenging and meaningful opportunities for successful learning. Ex. The teacher allows the students to practice extracting and summarizing information from various sources and then provides feedback before the students begin their research projects.
3. Personal Responsibility: link learning success to students' personal effort and ability. Ex. The teacher provides written feedback on the quality of the students' performance and acknowledges the students' dedication and hard work.

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Satisfaction

---

1. Intrinsic Reinforcement: encourage and support intrinsic enjoyment of the learning experience. Ex. The teacher invites former students to provide testimonials on how learning these skills helped them with subsequent homework and class projects.
2. Extrinsic Rewards: provide positive reinforcement and motivational feedback. Ex. The teacher awards certificates to students as they master the complete set of skills.
3. Equity: maintain consistent standards and consequences for success. Ex. After the term project has been completed, the teacher provides evaluative feedback using the criteria described in class.

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There are a variety of specific actions that teachers can take to increase motivation on classroom tasks. In general, these fall into the two categories discussed above: intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. (Huitt, 2001)
 

Intrinsic	Extrinsic
Explain or show why learning a particular content or skill is important Create and/or maintain curiosity Provide a variety of activities and sensory stimulations Provide games and simulations Set goals for learning Relate learning to student needs Help student develop plan of action	Provide clear expectations Give corrective feedback Provide valuable rewards Make rewards available

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Some teaching strategies that can be used to foster motivation and provide better transfer opportunities of language skills include the following: (Ngeow, Karen Yeok-Hwa, 1998)
 

* Encourage learners to take ownership in learning.

Have learners take ownership of the learning assignment by letting them identify and decide for themselves relevant learning goals. This will motivate them to apply what they have learned to attain these learning goals.

* Promote intentional cognition or mindfulness to learning in various contexts.

Learners must be able to practice language in multiple contexts in order to bridge domains and foster active abstraction of concepts learned (Bransford, et al. 1990). This will help learners recognize the relevance and transferability of different learning skills or knowledge.

* Increase authenticity of learning tasks and goals.

Learners should recognize a real need to accomplish learning goals that are relevant and holistic (rather than task-specific). This prepares them for the complexities of real-world tasks that require them to use language skills and knowledge that have to be continually transferred.

"The best way to create interest in a subject is to render it worth knowing, which means to make the knowledge gained usable in one's thinking beyond the situation in which learning has occurred." Bruner (1960, p.31)
 

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Some effective suggestions for improving the affective climate of the SL learning environment:
By Paula Kristmanson
http://www.caslt.org/research/affect.htm
 

• Encourage and support students at all times but especially when they are struggling or lacking confidence in certain areas.
• Be energetic and enthusiastic about what you are teaching and on those days when you do not have that energy, provide activities that require the learners to put forth the majority of the energy.
• Create an atmosphere in which students are not afraid to make mistakes and are encouraged to take risks.
• Avoid tension-causing strategies such as surprise quizzes, overly competitive activities, putting students in front of their peers with no warning or chance for preparation, and correcting errors in a negative, accusatory fashion.
• Allow students opportunities to talk about themselves, their interests, and their culture. Through preplanned and spontaneous activities, provide opportunities for interaction in the target language in and outside the language learning environment.
• Encourage goal setting and a sense of dedication and continuous commitment to the language learning task through meaningful, relevant and authentic language learning activities.
• Encourage learners to seek out opportunities in their lives that will help in the learning of the target language.
• Create, through the presentation of attainable goals and reasonable challenges, a learning environment with a definite potential for success.
• Recognize the "little successes", improvements and progress of all students both individually and with the entire group.

Students:

Walking your talk is a great way to motivate yourself. No one likes to live a lie. Be honest with yourself, and you will find the motivation to do what you advise others to do.
--Vince Poscente (Invinceable Principles)

YOU CAN BE WHATEVER YOU WANT TO BE
 by Donna Levine

There is inside you
all of the potential to be whatever
you want to be
all of the energy to do whatever
you want to do.

Imagine yourself as you would like to be,
doing what you want to do,
and each day, take one step
towards your dream.

And though at times it may seem too
difficult to continue,
hold on to your dream.

One morning you will awake to find
that you are the person
you dreamed of
doing what you wanted to do
simply because you had the courage
to believe in your potential
and to hold on to your dream.

http://www.wow4u.com/youcan/index.html

Additional sites:

Keys to Motivation
http://www.motivation123.com/keys.html

Techniques to Help You Get Motivated Today
http://www.motivation123.com/motiv-fortuneteller.html

 
Get Up and Go - Motivation
http://www.study.com.au/magic/skills/motivate.html
 

Motivation is the force that causes you to take action - apply the effort & commitment needed to do something.

There are two important parts to motivation:
 

Who are you doing it for?	For myself OR others  (parents or teachers)
What are you doing it for?	To gain benefits OR  avoid unpleasantness

People tend to be most successful when working toward positive outcomes on things they find personally fulfilling. In such cases they will do whatever it takes to get the result that they want. One of the most important tasks is to decide what you want . . .

If you don't plan where you are heading, you might end up in an occupation or life style that is not very satisfying.

If you haven't decided yet, identify a range of wishes for the future, and set about exploring the background of people who have achieved that lifestyle.

Mapping out a plan to achieve your dreams is often called writing up a list of goals. Click here (http://www.study.com.au/ideal/idpdf/studentp/goal_sample_page.pdf) for an example.

(Make a Treasure Map of your Goals:
Make a map of the things that you wish to achieve during your life.
Start by listing the key areas, then adding more detail.
You will notice that each time you return to your map
your vision for the future will become clearer.
Use words, drawings or pictures from magazines.
Start with a picture of yourself.
A good strategy is to make a poster size collage for your
bedroom wall to help you focus on your goals each day.)

Whatever you call your preferred future direction, write it down, draw it, paint it, make a collage of your direction and work toward it.

If you can find something better, simply adjust you goals and direction.

Remember to link your goals to your school work.

To create greater motivation for your school work take time to find as many positive connections between the subjects you are doing and possible benefits for achieving your goals.

© Study Magic 1999

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What is motivation?

http://www.unisanet.unisa.edu.au/motivation/

Motivation is a desire to achieve a goal, combined with the energy to work towards that goal. Students who are motivated have a desire to undertake their study and complete the requirements of their course.

Are you a motivated student?

Being a motivated student doesn’t mean you are always excited or fully committed to your study, but it does mean you will complete the tasks set for you even when assignments or practicals are difficult, or seem uninteresting.

What is 'loss of motivation'?

You might experience loss of motivation as a reluctance to undertake an assignment or project, or attend a lecture or tutorial. As a result of loss of motivation you may be thinking about withdrawing from a subject, or taking leave from university for a semester,  for a year, or ‘forever’.

You may experience loss of motivation as if it were a lost object or a lost friend. You might feel:

• anxious
• confused
• frustrated
• angry
• uncertain
• depressed

How can motivation ‘be lost’?

 The most common reasons for loss of motivation are:

• a change
• accumulated changes
• a negative experience
• several negative experiences

 Specific contributing factors might be:

• a low mark or a series of low marks
• getting behind on a program of study
• responsibilities, other than study, taking priority
• feeling isolated
• study becoming irrelevant to short term or long term goals
• a mismatch between the knowledge, beliefs or interests which a student has and the ideas with which they are coming in contact
• the difficulty of subject material

If you have experienced any of the above factors how have they affected you?

Searching for motivation

Just as you can ‘lose’ motivation, you can also ‘find’ motivation.

The connecting link between losing motivation and finding it, is the search. The search will involve some focusing on how important the goal is that you are seeking, and some change to your behavior. It is likely to involve a number of steps.

  Give yourself some quality time to work through the steps in this program.

---

Eight step plan to help you search for, and find motivation. The eight step plan for finding motivation to study can be shown as:

Step 1    Give yourself time

Step 2   Work with all of you

Step 3   Focus on goals

Step 4   Make study a priority

Step 5   Feel good about yourself

Step 6   Take care of your health

Step 7   Visualization

Step 8  Build on your knowledge

---

1- Give yourself time

You probably have not lost motivation overnight. You will need to give yourself time to find it again. Lost objects are most easily found when you:

are calm

have some time to search

are able to concentrate on one thing at a time

How can you begin to relax, give yourself time and concentrate on one thing at a time?
 

2- Work with the whole you

Keep in mind that loss of motivation is an experience which can affect your thoughts, your feelings and your body.

You might be feeling anxious or guilty.

You might be thinking that you will never be able to complete your work on time.

You might be finding it difficult to get your body physically moving in the morning.

Ask yourself the following questions, and list your answers in a copy of the Table "How am I?"

What am I feeling?

What am I thinking?

What is my physical state of health?

What are my goals about how I want my feelings,  thoughts and  health to be ?

Use a copy of the Table:"How am I?" to monitor your progress towards your goals.

3- Focus on goals

You need to know your

• short term goals
• long term goals and
• which goals have priority.
You may have many goals and aim to achieve many of them. You may, however, have only sufficient time and energy to work towards achieving one or two of these goals. So deciding on what goals are most important to you is an important step in becoming motivated about your study.

Use the "My Goals" table to answer the following questions
 

• What are my goals for this week?

• What are my goals for this year ?

• What are my goals for the next four years?

• Which of these goals are achievable?

• Which of these goals are most important to me?

When you have completed the  "My Goals" table ask you self the question:

Where does study rate on my list of important goals?

If
 

study has been omitted from your list of goals or

is a low priority or

is not achievable,

then  you are experiencing loss of motivation to study.

There may be many aspects of your life that are important to you other than study. You may, for example,

have family commitments,

want to have paid employment,

you may want to travel overseas.

Any of these may be more important goals for you than study.

If you have a large number of goals, or study is a low priority for you, you may choose to

make an appointment with a counselor,

talk with a friend or

see a teacher

about what is happening for you in relation to study and how you can decide which goals to make priorities.

Next Step:

You can either

talk with a friend about your priorities or,

make an appointment to see a teacher or

make an appointment to see a counselor or

 

4- Make study a priority

If in Step 3 you discovered that study is a priority for you right now, you will need to get yourself going.

Use the Make study a priority questionnaire to work out

• your study commitments
• a pattern for studying and
• how to incorporate rewards

 
When you have answered the questionnaire you will have completed a study plan for yourself which includes goals, time management and self rewards.  With a study plan you will be able to undertake study and will be well on your way in your search for motivation.

You might also like to search out how to:

manage  your time and study workload

avoid procrastination

5- Feel good about yourself

Feeling good about yourself and recognizing your achievements may be a key factor in helping you find motivation. When we have a sense of well being and self esteem we can tackle difficult or uninteresting tasks with a positive outlook.

Use the "Feeling good about yourself" questionnaire to discover positive attributes about yourself and how to use them. You might find collecting positive attributes about yourself a difficult task. You could ask a close friend or a family member about positive aspects they recognize in you.
 

6- Take care of your health

Physical well being is also an important part of finding motivation. Studying is demanding physically as well as mentally and emotionally. Because studying requires so much sitting, reading and computer work it is important that you include exercise and healthy eating in your life.

Use the "How healthy am I?" questionnaire to assess your level of health.
 

Remember

• Changing eating and exercise patterns is not easy.
• Some experts say that small consistent changes are more effective than extreme changes to lifestyles.
• Different ways of eating and different ways of including exercise  seem to suit different people at different times, eg. you might find that a short burst of regular exercise in the morning by yourself suits you; you might find that you look forward to a weekly game of netball, basketball or badminton in the evening; or you might find that a yoga or tai-chi class suits you

You can experiment with what suits you best.

7- Visualization: Encouraging your mind to work for you

You might find that visualizing a situation, and a context in which you have successfully achieved your goals, is an effective motivational force. You can   visualize yourself studying at your desk at home, working through your study program easily and efficiently and then seeing yourself completing your work and handing it up.
You can use the Visualization exercise for students to begin.

If you can picture positive situations in your head then you have an image, or a visualization, which you can use daily before or during study to visualize yourself being motivated and successful. You might want to learn more about meditation which includes practicing visualization.

8- Build on your knowledge

You have now undertaken seven steps to help you in your search for motivation. Step 2 included the examination of your thoughts, feelings and your health. Step 8 will involve you in monitoring how you are, and using what you have discovered to help you in your search for motivation. You will need to use your list of answers from Step 2 as a base line to discover how undertaking the seven steps has helped you in your search for motivation.

At weekly intervals, you can use the Keeping up the search for motivation checklist The checklist  will help you build on your knowledge about yourself in searching for, and maintaining, your motivation to study.

http://www.unisanet.unisa.edu.au/motivation/

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Other useful web sites:
Motivating Students: http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~tep/tshooting/motivating.html
High Expectations: http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/students/atrisk/at6lk11.htm
Student Motivation To Learn: http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed370200.html
Motivation in the Classroom: http://www.gse.uci.edu/ed173online/173weblio.html#LECT6

1- Why do people learn a second/foreign language?
2- Definitions of L2
3- Good L2 Learners
4- Definitions of Motivation
5- Sources of Motivation
6- Theories of Motivation
7- Models of Motivation
8- Factors that Affect Motivation
9- Instruments for Motivation Assessment
10- Implications & Strategies
 


"Researchers must reconceptualize L2 learning strategies to include the social and affective sides of learning along with the more intellectual sides. The L2 learner is not just a cognitive and metacognitive machine but, rather, a whole person. In strategy training, teachers should help students develop affective and social strategies, as well as intellectually related strategies, based on their individual learning styles, current strategy use, and specific goals." (Oxford, 1994)

Developing life-long learners who are intrinsically motivated, display intellectual curiosity, find learning enjoyable, and continue seeking knowledge after their formal instruction has ended has always been a major goal of education. (Small, 1997)

"Motivation is a fire from within. If someone else tries to light that fire under you, chances are it will burn very briefly."
Stephen R. Covey

 "... given motivation, it is inevitable that a human being will learn a second language if he is exposed to the language data." (Corder 1981:1)

 
Alderfer, C. (1972). Existence, relatedness, & growth. New York: Free Press.

Ames, C., & Ames, R. (1989). Research in motivation in education. San Diego: Academic Press.

Ames, R. and Ames C. (1991).  Motivation and Effective Teaching. Educational Values and Cognitive Instruction: Implications for Reform.  Idol, Lorna, and Beau Fly , Jones eds.  Hillsdale: L. Erlbaum and Associates.

Ames, C. (1992). Classroom goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(3), 261-271.

Arnold, J. (ed.) (1999). Affect in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Brophy, J. (1986). On Motivating Students. Occasional Paper No. 101. East Lansing, Michigan: Institute for Research on Teaching, Michigan State University.  ED276 724.

Brophy, J. (1987). Synthesis of Research on Strategies for Motivating Students To Learn. Educational Leadership: 40-48. EJ362 226

Bruner, J. S. (1960). The process of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard. [EJ 043 959]

Chi, M. T. H. (1988). Knowledge-constrained inferences about new domain-related concepts: Contrasting experts and novices. Pittsburgh University, PA: Learning Research & Development Center. [ED 297 882]

Corder, S.P. (1981). Error Analysis and Interlanguage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
 

Crookes, G., & Schmidt, R. W. (1991). Motivation: Reopening the research agenda. Language Learning, 41, 469-512. [EJ 435 997]
http://www.deil.uiuc.edu/nppm/texts/crookes/crookesschmidt.html

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum Press.

Dörnyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. Modern Language Journal, 78, 273-284.

Dörnyei, Z. (1994). Understanding L2 motivation: On with the challenge! Modern Language Journal, 78, 515-523.

Dornyei, Z. (1998). Survey Article: Motivation in second and foreign language learning. Language Teaching, 31, 117-135.

Dörnyei, Z., & Ottó, I. (1998). Motivation in action: A process model of L2 motivation. Working Papers in Applied Linguistics (Thames Valley University, London), 4, 43-69.
http://www-db.library.nottingham.ac.uk/ep1/documents/doc1/00/00/00/39/index.html

Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Teaching and Researching Motivation. Harlow, England: Longman.

Ely, C. (1986). Language Learning Motivation: A Descriptive and Causal Analysis. The Modern Language Journal, 70, 28-33.

Fisher, Robert. (1990). Teaching Children to Think,  Basil Blackwell

Gardner, R.C. & Lambert, W.E. (1959). Motivational Variables in Second Language Acquisition. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 13, 266-272.

Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and Motivation in Second-Language Learning. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House Publishers.

GARDNER, R.C., Tremblay, P.F. (1994). On motivation : measurement and conceptual considerations. Modern Language Journal 78:4. 524-527.

Gardner, R. C., & Tremblay, P. F. (1994). On motivation, research agendas, and theoretical perspectives. Modern Language Journal, 79, 359-368.

Keller, J.M.(1983). Motivational design of instruction. In C.M. Reigeluth (Ed.). Instructional design theories and models: An overview of their current status. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Keller, J.M. (1987a, Oct.). Strategies for stimulating the motivation to learn. Performance and Instruction, 26(8), 1-7. (EJ 362 632)

Keller, J.M. (1987b). IMMS: Instructional materials motivation survey. Florida State University.

Keller, J.M. & Keller, B.H. (1989). Motivational delivery checklist. Florida State University.

Krashen, S. (1981), Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning, Pergamon
 

Krashen, S. (1982), Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition, Pergamon
.
Krashen, S. (1985), The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications, Longman
.
Krashen, S. (1985), Language Acquisition and Language Education, Alemany Press

McDonough, S.H. (1981), Psychology in Foreign Language Teaching, London, Allen & Unwin.

McClelland, D.N. (1998), An Investigation into the Socio-Psychological Orientations of Japanese College Students Learning EFL, University of Surrey, English Language Institute. M.A. Linguistics.
http://www.surrey.ac.uk/ELI/mcclellandn.pdf

Maslow, A. (1954). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper.
 

Naiman, N., Frohlich, M., & Todesco, A. (1975). The good second language learner. TESL Talk, 6, 58-75.

O'Malley, J.M., & Chamot, A.U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Oxford, R.L. (1990b). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Oxford, R. L. (1994). Where are we regarding language learning motivation? Modern Language Journal, 78, 512-515.

Oxford, R. L. and Shearin, J. (1994). Language learning motivation: Expanding the theoretical framework. The Modern Language Journal, 78, 12-28.

Oxford, R. L. (ed.). (1996). Language learning motivation : pathways to the new century. Honolulu, Hawai'i : Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center, University of Hawai'i at Manoa.

Oxford, RL & Shearin, J. (1996). Language learning motivation in a new key. In Oxford, RL (Ed.). Language Learning Motivation: Pathways to the New Century. Honolulu: University of Hawai Press. 121-44

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Piaget, J. (1990). The child's conception of the world. New York: Littlefield Adams.

Ramirez, A. (1986). Language learning strategies used by adolescents studying French in New York schools. Foreign Language Annals, 19, 131-141.

Reiss, M.A. (1985). The good language learners: Another look. Canadian Modern Language Review, 41, 511-23.

Richard-Amato, P. (1997). Affect and Related Factors in Second and Foreign Language Acquisition. TESOL's Voices of Experience Series.

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Shaaban, K. & Ghaith, G. (2000). “Effect of Gender, Proficiency Level, First Foreign Language, and University Major on Students’ Motivation to Learn English as a Foreign Language”. Foreign Language Annals, 33 (6), 632-644.

Small, R.V. (1997). Assessing the motivational quality of world wide websites. ERIC Clearinghouse on Information and Technology. (ED number pending, IR 018 331)

Stipek, D. (1988). Motivation to learn: From theory to practice. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
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Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Vygotsky, L., & Vygotsky, S. (1980). Mind in society : The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Vygotsky, L. (1986). Thought and language. Boston: MIT Press.

Wen, X. (1997). Motivation and Language Learning with Students of Chinese. Foreign Language Annals, 30, 235-250.

Related Links:

Affect in Language Learning
http://www.finchpark.com/afe/affect.htm

AN EDUCATION WORLD E-INTERVIEW WITH CAROL DWECK:
How Can Teachers Develop Students' Motivation -- and Success?
http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr197.shtml

An exercise in Motivating yourself
http://www.iss.stthomas.edu/studyguides/motivation.htm

A SELF CONCEPT-BASED MODEL OF WORK MOTIVATION
http://www.cba.uri.edu/Scholl/Papers/Self_Concept_Motivation.HTM

ASKERIC_ Motivation sites
http://www.askeric.org/cgi-bin/print.cgi/Resources/General_Education/Motivation.html

A Tripartite Model of Motivation for Achievement: Attitude/Drive/Strategy
Bruce W. Tuckman, The Ohio State University
http://www.coe.ohio-state.edu/acadlearnlab/paper/apa99paper.htm

Brittanica- Article on Motivation
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?eu=115598&tocid=0

Contextual Factors in Second Language Acquisition- Intrinsic Motivation
http://www.cal.org/ericcll/digest/0005contextual.html

DEMOS & CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES--MOTIVATION & EMOTION
Theories of motivation
http://www.abacon.com/psychsite/tool_motivation.html

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVATION
http://www.hcc.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/motivate.htm

Get Up and Go - Motivation
http://www.study.com.au/magic/skills/motivate.html

Hard Work and High Expectations: Motivating Students to Learn
June 1992- U.S. Department of Education
http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content3/work.expectations.k12.4.html

How Is Language Acquired?
http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Atrium/3993/esl/language1.htm

Increasing Student Engagement and Motivation: From Time-on-Task to Homework
Cori Brewster & Jennifer Fager
OCTOBER 2000
NORTHWEST REGIONAL EDUCATIONAL LABORATORY
http://www.nwrel.org/request/oct00/textonly.html

Krashen's Input Hypothesis Model of L2 learning
http://privatewww.essex.ac.uk/~vcook/Krashen.htm
http://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash.html

Language Learning Strategies: An Update
Rebecca Oxford, University of Alabama- October 1994
http://www.cal.org/ericcll/digest/oxford01.html

Language Learning Strategies in Foreign Language Learning and Teaching
Murat Hismanoglu
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Hismanoglu-Strategies.html

Motivation- by W. Huitt
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/motivation/motivate.html

Motivation- By leon Bantjes
http://hagar.up.ac.za/catts/learner/leonb/motivation.htm

Motivation- What Can I Do When I Get Discouraged?
http://www.sheridanc.on.ca/career/study/motivat.htm

Motivation as a Contributing Factor in Second Language Acquisition
http://iteslj.org/Articles/Norris-Motivation.html

Motivation in Instructional Design
by Ruth V. Small (1997)
http://www.ericit.org/digests/EDO-IR-1997-06.shtml

Motivation, Where does it come from?  Where does it go?
by Andrew Littlejohn
ENGLISH TEACHING professional, Issue 19, March 2001
http://www3.bc.sympatico.ca/linguisticsissues/motivation.html

Motivating Today's Students: The Same Old Stuff Just Doesn't Work
ERIC- By Linda Lumsden
http://eric.uoregon.edu/publications/text/portraits1.2.html

Motivation and Transfer in Language Learning. ERIC Digest.
ERIC Identifier: ED427318
Publication Date: 1998
Author: Ngeow, Karen Yeok-Hwa
http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed427318.html

Motivation in action: A process model of L2 motivation. Working Papers in Applied Linguistics Dörnyei, Z., & Ottó, I. (1998). http://www-db.library.nottingham.ac.uk/ep1/documents/doc1/00/00/00/39/index.html

Motivation: Reopening the research agenda.
Crookes, G., & Schmidt, R. W. (1991)
http://www.deil.uiuc.edu/nppm/texts/crookes/crookesschmidt.html

"Motivation is a fire from within. If someone else tries to light that fire under you, chances are it will burn very briefly."
Stephen R. Covey
http://www.wow4u.com/motivation/index.html

Motivation- 6 major factors
http://www.utexas.edu/pharmacy/general/experiential/practitioner/effective/motv.html

Motivation: Web Sites
http://www.tandl.vt.edu/doolittle/resources/motivation1.html

Motivation in SLA- part 1
http://page.freett.com/f7128589/body1.htm

Motivational Quotes
http://www.wow4u.com/

Motivational Quotations by Dale Carnegie
http://www.wow4u.com/dcarnegie/

Motivation and Middle School Students. ERIC Digest.
http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed421281.html

Quick Motivation Test
http://privatewww.essex.ac.uk/~vcook/Motivation.htm

Quotes for Teachers
http://www.rit.edu/~andpph/text-quotations.html

Research Paper: Motivation in Second Language Education
Mike Conner- Iowa State University Ames, Iowa
http://www.public.iastate.edu/~micon/classes/517/motive.htm

School Leadership and Student Motivation. ERIC Digest, Number 71.
http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed346558.html

Second Language Acquisition Topics
http://privatewww.essex.ac.uk/~vcook/SLATOPICS.htm

Sources of Motivation Approaches
http://www.cba.uri.edu/scholl/Notes/Sources_Motivation.htm

Strategies to Enhance Adult Motivation to Learn
by Raymond J. Wlodkowski
summarized from Adult Learning Methods: A Guide for Effective Instruction
by Michael W. Galbraith, 1991
http://archon.educ.kent.edu/~nebraska/curric/ttim1/artsum2.html

Student motivation to learn- ERIC database
http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed370200.html

Theories of motivation- activities
http://www.abacon.com/psychsite/motivation_act.html

The role of affect in language learning with implications for teaching in Japan
Stella Yamasaki & Tatsuroh Yamasaki- Hosei University
http://www.jalt.org/teach/Newsletter_files/Oct_1999/October_1999_ARTICLE
_The_role_of_affect_in_language_learning_with_implications_for_teaching_in_Japan.html
 

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